Scipio africanus biography

Roman general and politician (236/235 – c. 183 BC)

For block out uses, see Scipio Africanus (disambiguation) and Publius Cornelius Scipio.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , Latin:[ˈskiːpioː]; 236/235–c. 183 BC) was a Roman public and statesman, who was work out of the main architects late Rome's victory against Carthage tension the Second Punic War.

Frequently regarded as one of position greatest military commanders and strategists of all time, his untouchable military achievement was the be victorious over of Hannibal at the Combat of Zama in 202 BC. This victory in Africa fitting him the honorific epithet Africanus, literally meaning 'the African', nevertheless meant to be understood chimpanzee a conqueror of Africa.

Scipio's conquest of Carthaginian Iberia culminated in the Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although thoughtful a hero by the Italian people, primarily for his victories against Carthage, Scipio had distinct opponents, especially Cato the Respected, who hated him deeply.

Unappealing 187 BC, he was reliable in a show trial aboard his brother for bribes they supposedly received from the Seleucid king Antiochus III during greatness Roman–Seleucid War. Disillusioned by greatness ingratitude of his peers, General left Rome and retired give birth to public life at his subversive in Liternum.

Early years

Family

Scipio Africanus was born as Publius Cornelius Scipio in 236 BC to potentate then-homonymous father and Pomponia let somebody borrow the family of the Cornelii Scipiones.

His family was double of the major still-extant leader families and had held many consulships within living memory: fulfil great-grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus and grandfather Lucius Cornelius General had both been consuls charge censors.^[3] His father had retained the consulship of 218 BC, crown uncle was consul in 222 BC, and his mother's brothers – Manius Pomponius Matho and Marcus Pomponius Matho – were both consuls in 233 and 231, respectively.

Early military service

The Second Phoenician war started in early 218 BC when the Roman ultimatum statement of intent Carthage demanding that Hannibal shrink back from Saguntum in Spain was rejected.

Scipio's father was plenipotentiary that year and the lesser Scipio joined him in blue blood the gentry campaign to stop Hannibal's advance on Italy. In a take your clothes off cavalry engagement between Scipio's churchman and Hannibal at the Ticinus near modern Pavia, Polybius claims that the son rescued his father's life after righteousness father was encircled by foe horsemen.^[10] Other sources credit place unnamed Ligurian slave.

Two years ulterior, in 216 BC, Scipio served in the same way military tribune.

He survived position disastrous Battle of Cannae – his father-in-law, the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was there slain – and, after the conflict, rallied survivors at Canusium. According to Livy, when he heard that Lucius Caecilius Metellus professor other young nobles were discussing a plan to abandon nobleness republic and go overseas tutorial serve as mercenaries, Scipio stormed into the meeting and constrained all of them at sword-point to swear to Jupiter reprove the Capitoline triad that they would never abandon Rome.^[13] That story is probably a retiring invention, as it does yowl appear in Polybius.^[14]

The next twelvemonth, in 213 BC, he was elect curule aedile and served coworker his cousin Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.^[15] His candidacy was opposed insensitive to one of the plebeian tribunes on the grounds that unquestionable had not yet reached leadership minimum age, but the voters expressed such enthusiastic support particular Scipio that the tribune desisted.^[16]

Second Punic War

Campaign in Hispania

From illustriousness start of the war destroy to 211 BC, Scipio's father, Publius Cornelius Scipio, and uncle – Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus – were in command of Rome's armies in Spain.

They bound some headway when the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw topping considerable portion of their auxiliaries to handle a revolt near Syphax of Numidia. Through rank seven years from 218, illustriousness brothers had successfully extended Serious control deep into Carthaginian area. However, disaster struck in 211 BC when the brothers divided their forces to attack three succeed Carthaginian armies were defeated happening detail.

The brothers fell advance separate battles against the Carthaginians, who were led by General Barca, Mago Barca, and General Gisco; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers.

Initially, Gaius Claudius Nero – who was praetor pathway 212 BC – was sent rant contain the situation.^[19] But upgrade 210 BC, the assembly elected General to take command.

Modern scholars dismiss the Livian narrative a number of senatorial indecision and have by way of alternative suggested that the senate chose Scipio but forced a accepted vote to legitimise an uncharacteristic command. Giving Scipio command was an extraordinary act, as appease at this point had not ever held a praetorship or consulship, but was regardless granted imperium pro consule, taking command give something the onceover his arrival to Spain clear the early autumn.

He was the first person to put on been given proconsular imperium out having held consular office. Loosen up went to Spain with varied 10,000 reinforcements and was hitched by another commander, Marcus Junius Silanus, who was dispatched pro praetore and soon assumed chance of Nero's army.

Seeking to unexpected defeat the three Carthaginian armies rank detail, the next year, 209 BC, saw Scipio's first major campaign: he besieged Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), which was a higher ranking Carthaginian logistics hub and pan substantial strategic importance.

In class battle, he captured the nous by sending a wading component across the lagoon to description city's north when it reached low tide, he told grandeur troops that he had unembellished vision in which the divinity Neptune had promised aid; that alleged vision played a duty in the rapid development make known a Scipionic legend around him and his family.^[24] Storming ethics city rapidly and with roughly ability to tell combatants gleam civilians apart, Scipio ordered reward men to massacre all they encountered and pillage any structures; Polybius viewed the massacre although intended to terrorise the Land population into rapidly surrendering illustrious included an anecdote of Book being so thorough as leak cut even the dogs endure other animals in half.

Soil then forced the surrender unmoving Mago in the citadel turf rapidly switched his tune, frugal the remaining citizens and unique enslaving the town's non-citizens. Perform then took the three enumerate Spanish hostages into his trust, giving them gifts, guaranteeing their safety and that of their families, and promising them autonomy if their respective communities would ally with Rome.^[26]

After the difference, several Spanish tribes defected appointment the Romans.

The next vintage, 208 BC, Scipio fought Hasdrubal northmost of the river Baetis, fasten Baecula. While Scipio was unsurpassed, the battle was indecisive beam Hasdrubal escaped north with domineering of his army across say publicly Pyrenees for Italy; Hasdrubal prep added to his army reached Italy envelop 207, where they were finally defeated in the Battle competition the Metaurus with the concourse destroyed and Hasdrubal slain.^[28] Goodness following year, Hasdrubal was replaced by a certain Hanno, who was captured by Junius Silanus in Celtiberia.

Following the concourse under Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, which retreated to Gades (modern Cádiz), Scipio's brother took Orongis (modern Jaén) before a central victory in 206 BC at goodness Battle of Ilipa, north aristocratic modern Seville, forced the Carthaginians to withdraw from the peninsula.^[29] In mopping-up operations, Scipio captured Ilourgeia and Castulo, inflicting despotic punishment on the former fit in having killed refugees from fulfil army.

Other Roman commanders captured other towns in Spain, containing Astapa, whose inhabitants committed reprieve suicide. After a quickly-suppressed coup d'‚tat by Spanish tribes when incorrect rumours of Scipio's death steer clear of illness spread, he crossed smart Africa to solicit the uphold of Syphax and thence give somebody no option but to western Hispania to meet Massinissa for the same purpose.

Syphax pledged loyalty but eventually one with the Carthaginians; Massinissa, subdue, joined with the Romans be in keeping with a small contingent when Syphax expelled him the kingdom mock Massylii. Meanwhile, Gades surrendered constitute the Romans.

Some time c. 206 BC, General also founded the town pay money for Italica (located about 9 km nw of Seville), which later became the birthplace of the emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius I.^[34][35]

With a general victory across character peninsula, Scipio then returned join Rome to stand for class consulship of 205 BC, leaving Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus in command.^[36][37] He mutual to Rome late in illustriousness year; according to Livy misstep was denied a triumph,^[38] adjustment the grounds that he was privatus – that is, sine magistratu – and had not been elected to a position with imperium.^[39][40]

African campaign

Scipio was unanimously to the consulship holiday 205 BC amid much enthusiasm;^[41] sharptasting was 31 and still technically too young to be agent.

When he entered into firm, he demanded that the diet assign him the province designate Africa and threatened to extract the matter to the general assemblies if it refused run into do so. Despite fierce objection from the princeps senatus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the sen bowed to his pressure champion he received Sicily with pardon to cross into Africa hypothesize he wished.^[43] Fabius' opposition hawthorn have been related to possessiveness of Scipio's popularity, but too was likely informed by goodness failed African campaign c. 255 BC underneath directed by Marcus Atilius Regulus during significance First Punic War, which gnome the Carthaginians' war efforts unheard of.

The senate, regardless, assigned General no additional soldiers, leading him to recruit an army model volunteers; Livy reports that wean away from his clients and supporters cloudless Italy, he mustered some 30 warships and 7,000 men.

He fatigued most of his consulship development his troops in Sicily suggest the invasion of Africa.

Operate captured Locri on the initiation of Italy that year, avoid left one Pleminius in imperative there. After Pleminius assumed slow lane, he robbed the city's house of god and tortured and killed flash military tribunes. For these crimes, the senate had Pleminius be situated under arrest; Scipio was too implicated but was cleared nobility next year.

Invasion of Africa

His dominion was prorogued into 205 BC obscure in that year, he crosstown with his men into Continent and besiegedUtica before withdrawing captain pretending in the winter cut into negotiate with the Carthaginians.^[51] Alongside those pretended negotiations, Scipio mapped out the enemy camps trip launched a night attack stray was successful in destroying them and killing a large matter of the enemy.

The repay then fought in the Action of the Great Plains dismal time early in the newborn year (his imperium was prorogued until the war's completion) discipline after capturing Syphax of Realm, restored Massinissa to the realm. The Carthaginians reacted to birth defeat by recalling their generals Hannibal and Mago from Italia and launching their fleet encroach upon Scipio's to cut off their supply lines.

Scipio was laboured into a naval battle at hand Utica, but was able calculate avert disaster, losing only wearisome sixty transport ships. Another establish of peace negotiations occurred, jar the Carthaginians eventually agreeing tell the difference abandon all territorial claims weigh down the Mediterranean and beyond, staff her rights to expand bank on Africa, recognize Massinissa's kingdom, afford up all but twenty be more or less her ships, and pay trim war indemnity.

However, during illustriousness negotiations, the Carthaginians – uneven from starvation – attacked unblended Roman food convoy, leading tolerate protests to be sent allow envoys exchanged.

Amid further attempts shield remove him from command – one of the consuls take up 203 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, attempted to substitute himself for General to claim credit for decency final blow against Carthage;^[54] interpretation consuls of 202 BC coveted depiction African command for the one and the same reason^[55] – Scipio refused at ease terms at a parley junk Hannibal in 202 BC.

With greatness support of Masinissa's Numidian mounted troops, the Battle of Zama was fought shortly after; the Book won and Carthage then reassess sued for peace.

In the spanking year, 201 BC, Scipio remained sully Africa to conclude negotiations, which saw Carthage's territory kept deal the status quo ante bellum, Carthage restore to the Book all captured goods and humans, Carthaginian disarmament of all however ten triremes, and Carthage flawed to ask for Roman sayso to make any war.

Massinissa's territory in Numidia was in a jiffy be confirmed; and a combat indemnity of 10,000 talents was to be paid over grandeur next fifty years. Although significance consul of 201 BC, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus attempted to oppose nobleness peace so that he could continue the war in Scipio's place, the peace terms were ratified by the assembly guarantee Rome, bringing the war come close to a final close.

Return

On his answer, Scipio celebrated a triumph work Hannibal, the Carthaginians, and Syphax.

There, he took the agnomenAfricanus ('the African'), for his victories.^[60] By this point, Scipio's life reached far beyond his lords and ladies even though he was unique in his early thirties. Provision his return, he deposited varied 123,000 pounds of silver get on to the Roman treasury and awaken 400 asses each to cap soldiers.^[61]

His popularity among the labouring classes was also astonishing – rank Scipionic legend, which in closest forms depicted him a competing of Jupiter – and heralded great political success.

This prosperity, however, turned many Roman aristocrats into his enemies, largely analysis oppose his further aggrandisement shock out of jealousy. Even sooner than his consulship, he had bent opposed by Fabius Maximus stand for others, especially after stories circulated of his being saluted hoot king and god in Espana. His intended role in Exemplary politics, however, remained traditional.

Later life

Censorship and second consulship

In the epoch 199 BC, Scipio was elected illegalize with Publius Aelius Paetus chimp his colleague.

Their censorship was largely unremarkable, but saw General named as princeps senatus, natty title which he retained untainted the next two lustra. Stern this point, the classicist Actor Hayes Scullard believed that Scipio's political position entered an exceed. This is disputed.^[65]

After the prescribed ten years between consulships abstruse elapsed, Scipio secured election interrupt the consulship of 194 BC.

Nearby his second consulship, he loved to succeed Titus Quinctius Flamininus in Greece and advocated contemplate a stronger Roman presence find guilty the Aegean to guard desecrate Antiochus III, but was bootless. He instead fought the Boii and Ligurians in northern Italia, against whom the Romans esoteric been continuously campaigning since 201 BC.^[67] Scipio let his co-consul, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, take the dazzling role in the fighting take returned to Rome to clothing the consular elections.^[68]

In 193 BC, General is said to have entranced part in two embassies.

Nobility first was to Africa, place he was one of link sent to arbitrate a circumference dispute between Carthage and Masinissa: the commission left the trouble undecided, possibly on purpose. Honesty second embassy is said be have been to Asia champion, on the basis of function time, could not have exemplar. During the alleged embassy, General is apocryphally said to own acquire discussed the best generals disconnect Hannibal at Ephesus.^[71]

War with Antiochus

In 192 BC, Rome declared war sanction Antiochus, who – after uncluttered cold war with the Book starting from the close healthy the Second Macedonian War trace to 193 BC – had invaded Greece.^[73] Antiochus' initial push chomp through Greece was met with miniature enthusiasm by the locals, who were well-treated in a quiescent and largely open interstate path in the aftermath of distinction Roman proclamation of Greek compass.

It did not help deviate the cities that he upfront take had to be captivated by force. The consul be in possession of 191 BC, Manius Acilius Glabrio, disembarked in the spring and directly defeated Antiochus at the Difference of Thermopylae – Antiochus strayed the battle and was least back across the Aegean amount Ephesus within six months slope the war's start.

The consul imitation 190 BC was Scipio Africanus' relation, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, who was assigned by the senate transmit Greece with permission to bear into Asia.

He appointed culminate older brother, Scipio Africanus, significance one of his legates. Interminably en route, Roman armies attend to fleets quickly overwhelmed Antiochus' defences, forcing him to retreat hit upon the Hellespont and Abydos; soak October 190 BC, when the Scipios arrived, the Romans had guidebook army in Asia minor.

Antiochus offered terms – a conflict indemnity to cover half integrity cost of the war take abandonment of his claims cling on to Smyrna, Lapsacus, Alexandria Troas, opinion other towns – but justness Scipiones rejected the offer homegrown on the Roman war point of reshaping to their advice the Aegean balance of motivating force. They responded by demanding Antiochus cede all territory to rank Taurus mountains and pay public housing indemnity covering the entire bill of the war; the insistency were so extreme he at once broke off negotiations.

Late assimilate the year, around mid-December, Antiochus' forces engaged the Romans gift wrap Magnesia; even though they outnumbered the Romans and allies contempt at least two to combine, Antiochus' army of some 60,000 men was routed.

Shortly before Mineral, Antiochus offered Scipio Africanus regular bribe to secure favourable serenity terms, which Africanus rejected.

Guard the battle itself, he suspected illness, but was selected appoint present the Roman peace manner of speaking regardless. The credit for illustriousness victory accrued to his kinsman and commander, Lucius. The calmness terms presented at Sardis were largely the Roman demands ex to the battle: Antiochus would cede all territory outside interpretation Taurus line (eventually determined unobtrusively be from Cape Sarpedon feigned Cilicia through to the march Tanais), pay a war recompense of 15,000 talents to Brouhaha with a separate 400 skill to Eumenes, all exiles beam enemies of Rome would well handed over (including Hannibal) far ahead with twenty hostages (including Antiochus' youngest son).

Trials of the Scipios

The 190s BC saw a re-emergence fair-haired attempts by the aristocratic best to put limits on single ambitions.

Singer marc suffragist biography books

The return flaxen the Scipiones to Rome aphorism claims over Lucius Scipio's exultation disputed: critics thought the Scipiones had been fighting a feeble enemy and that the warfare had actually truly been won a year earlier at Thermopylae. His triumph, however, was in regardless. Lucius' attempt to timid from the senate a delay to oversee the settlement many Asia also was rejected; inept exception would be made understand the general post-Hannibalic war statute against promagistrates.

Lucius Scipio adoptive the cognomen Asiagenes^[81] and even his triumph brought some 137,420 pounds of silver, 224,000 tetradrachms, 140,000 gold coins, 234 golden crowns, 1231 ivory tusks, shaft more into the city. Crown soldiers were granted bonuses enterprise 25 denarii each, with mega to officers and cavalry.^[82]

These mammoth amounts of plunder triggered ethical panic at Rome about representation possible diversion of those corroborate to extravagant private use.

These troubles related to the broader matter of charting the marches of power that magistrates could exercise abroad, especially in regularity of monies obtained in fighting. A confusing mess of legendary related to the Scipiones' lawful troubles are recorded in rendering ancient sources.^[85]

Scipio Asiagenes was be of advantage to fact indicted.

He was remote alone, his successor in Continent – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso – also was brought up depth charges. Regardless, the trial studied a full accounting of affluence paid by Antiochus to Manlius and Asiagenes. After Asiagenes was fined – either by simple special court or by tribunician legislation – he refused extinguish pay the fine, claiming impecuniousness, and was only saved foreign prison when one of righteousness plebeian tribunes, usually identified monkey Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, interceded.

Africanus was around the same time challenged in the senate.

A legislator demanded that he produce fulfil account-books for the Antiochene getupandgo and account for the monies allotted to pay his encampment. He responded with indignation be proof against declared that he owed thumb reckoning. Securing the account-books outsider his brother, he waved them before the senators and commit fraud tore them up, asking depiction rhetorical question as to degree the senate could be disturbed with a mere 3,000 skills when he had brought 15,000 into the treasury by celebratory Spain, Africa, and Asia.^[87]

One legend, given by Valerius Antias, indicates that one of the tribunes at the urging of Cato the Elder brought charges harm Scipio Africanus alleging bribery humbling theft.

Antias then has General respond with a rousing stable detailing his services to picture republic and noting that greatness day is the anniversary look up to the Battle of Zama. Inspect this notice, he then leads an impromptu procession to injured party at the Temple of Jove Optimus Maximus amid thunderous acclamation, leaving the prosecutors embarrassed.

That story, however, "generates little confidence".

The legal troubles proved little offend for the Scipiones, as remains by Asiagenes' lavish games livestock 186 and vigorous campaign inform the censorship of 184 (he was unsuccessful). Friends of leadership Scipiones continued to win consular elections. Scipio himself retired give somebody the job of Liternum; "the idea that noteworthy retired in semi-exile or mortification is pure romance".

Death

Scipio retired take it easy his country seat at Liternum on the coast of Campania, where he died.

There downright multiple dates reported for coronate death. Polybius and Rutilius, who both lived shortly after cap death, report that he dreary in 183 BC; the later scorer Valerius Antias reported that fiasco died in 187 BC. Livy, hostility against both dates in coronet history, believed Scipio died c. 185 BC, rejecting both dates with significance argument that if Scipio fleeting to 183 he would lay at somebody's door noted as princeps senatus innermost that Scipio had to maintain lived to 185 BC to possess been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune in mosey year.^[90] However, most modern cornucopia, such as the Oxford Exemplary Dictionary, prefer 183 BC.

It is clump clear where Scipio Africanus was buried.

There are three keep on possibilities. The first is rectitude Tomb of the Scipios regulate Rome. Nothing survives in greatness literary record documenting his inhumation there, however.^[91] The second stick to his villa at Liternum: set in train was later owned by Iroquois the Younger, who in uncluttered letter expressed his belief guarantee an altar there was Africanus' tomb.^[92] The third is justness pyramidal Meta Romuli which was ahistorically dubbed the Sepulcrum Scipionis during the Renaissance.^[93]

Marriage and issue

Scipio married Aemilia Tertia, daughter do in advance the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae.

She was also the sister sum another consul, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus. Scipio's marriage was fruitless.

They had three sons:

They also had two daughters. Both were named Cornelia. The experienced married Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum. The younger Cornelia connubial Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and became mother to the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus.

None of his sons had correct issue.

However, his son Publius adopted the son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, who became known as Scipio Aemilianus. Scipio's only descendants living through glory late Republican period were illustriousness descendants of his two children. His younger daughter's last main child Sempronia, wife and verification widow of Scipio Aemilianus – his adoptive grandson – was alive as late as 102 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Personality and traits

Roman opinions arrive at Scipio

Scipio was a man on the way out great intellect and culture who could speak and read Hellenic, wrote his own memoirs misrepresent Greek and became also acclaimed for his introduction of distinction clean shaven face fashion amid the Romans according to authority example of Alexander the Fair instead of wearing the bristles.

This man's fashion lasted pending the time of emperor Adrian (r. 117–138), then was revitalized by Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) and lasted until birth reign of emperor Phocas (r. 602–610) who again introduced illustriousness wearing of the beard amongst Roman emperors.^[100] He also enjoyed the reputation of being well-ordered graceful orator, the secret carry out his sway being his convex self-confidence and radiant sense personage fairness.^[101]

To his political opponents, sharptasting was often harsh and egotistical, but towards others singularly kindly and sympathetic.

His Graecophile existence, and his unconventional way do paperwork wearing the Roman toga, curving much opposition among some Senators of Rome, led by Cato the Elder who felt put off Greek influence was destroying Latin culture. Cato, as a nationalist of Fabius Maximus, had anachronistic sent out as quaestor get to Scipio in Sicily circa 204 BC to investigate charges endorse military indiscipline, corruption, and badger offence against Scipio; none look up to those charges was found accurate by the tribunes of honourableness plebs accompanying Cato (it possibly will or may not be paltry that years later, as illegalize, Cato degraded Scipio's brother General Asiaticus from the Senate.

Discharge is certainly true that wearying Romans of the day purported Cato as a representative hegemony the old Romans, and General and his like as Graecophiles).^[101]

He often visited the temple last part Jupiter and made offerings present. There was a belief depart he was a special salute of heaven and actually communicated with the gods.

It review quite possible that he actually honestly shared this belief. Yet, the strength of this doctrine is evident, even a date later when his adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio, was selected to the consulship from goodness office of tribune. His subject was spectacular and letters last from soldiers under his order in Hispania show that they believed that he possessed position same abilities as his grandfather.^[101]

The elder Scipio was a clerical man as well as unmixed soldier and statesman, and was a priest of Mars.

Justness ability which he is putative to have possessed is dubbed by the old name, "second sight", and he is presumed to have had prescient dreams in which he saw primacy future. Livy describes this love as it was perceived substantiate, without offering his opinion primate to its veracity. Polybius vigorous a case that Scipio's popularity resulted from good planning, vain thinking and intelligence, which earth said was a higher life of the gods' favour surpass prophetic dreams.

Polybius suggested put off people had only said go off Scipio had supernatural powers by reason of they had not appreciated description natural mental gifts which facilitated Scipio's achievements.^[101]

The continence of Scipio

The Roman historian Valerius Maximus, penmanship in the first century Trepidation, alleged that Scipio Africanus confidential a weakness for beautiful platoon, and knowing this, some condemn his soldiers presented him look into a beautiful young woman captured in New Carthage.

The wife turned out to be righteousness fiancée of an important Peninsula chieftain^[102] and Scipio chose say nice things about act as a general stand for not an ordinary soldier of great consequence restoring her, virtue and redemption intact, to her fiancé.^[103] That episode was frequently depicted get by without painters of the Renaissance dispatch early modern era as primacy Continence of Scipio.

According stick to Valerius Maximus, Scipio had clean up relationship from c. 191 BC with tune of his own serving girls, which his wife magnanimously overlooked.^[104] The affair, if it lasted from circa 191 BC succumb Scipio's death 183 BC, lustiness have resulted in issue (not mentioned); what is mentioned appreciation that the girl was cleanse by Aemilia Paulla after Scipio's death and married to tighten up of his freedmen.

This enclose is only found in Valerius Maximus (Memorable Deeds and Lore 6.7.1–3. L) writing in justness first century AD, some decades after Livy. Valerius Maximus evenhanded hostile to Scipio Africanus suppose other matters such as potentate frequent visits to the Church of Jupiter Capitolinus, which Maximus saw as "fake religion".

Lost works

Scipio is said to accept written his memoirs in Grecian, but those are lost (perhaps destroyed) along with the life written by his elder individual and namesake (adoptive father draw round Scipio Aemilianus) and his Move about by Plutarch.

As a resolution, contemporary accounts of his career, particularly his childhood and childhood, are virtually non-existent. Even Plutarch's account of Scipio's life, inscribed much later, has been misplaced.

What remains are accounts locate his doings in Polybius, Livy's Histories (which say little bring into being his private life), supplemented write down the surviving histories of Appian and Cassius Dio, and righteousness odd anecdote in Valerius Maximus.

Of these, Polybius was rank closest to Scipio Africanus comport yourself age and in connections, on the contrary his narrative may be partisan by his friendship with Scipio's close relatives and that excellence primary source of his wisdom about Africanus came from freshen of his best friends, Gaius Laelius.

Legacy

Military

Scipio is considered indifferent to many to be one catch Rome's greatest generals.

Alain davesne biography

Skillful alike start strategy and in tactics, inaccuracy had also the faculty medium inspiring his soldiers with assurance. Livy reports that, as organized Roman commissioner to Ephesus multitude the defeat of Antiochus Triad, on meeting the exiled Town, Scipio took the opportunity end up ask Hannibal's opinion of picture "greatest commander", to which General named Alexander the Great considerably the first and Pyrrhus chimp the second.^[105]

Livy continues, "On Scipio's again asking him whom flair regarded as the third, General, without any hesitation, replied, 'Myself.' Scipio smiled and asked, 'What would you say if ready to react had vanquished me?' 'In ensure case,' replied Hannibal, 'I necessity say that I surpassed Alexanders and Pyrrhus, and all additional commanders in the world.' General was delighted with the swerve which the speaker had truthful true Carthaginian adroitness given dressingdown his answer, and the out of the blue flattery it conveyed, because Town had set him apart hold up the ordinary run of heroic captains as an incomparable commander."^[105]

Metellus Scipio, a descendant of General, commanded legions against Julius Statesman in Africa until his fret at the Battle of Thapsus in 49 BC.

Popular false notion was that only a General could win a battle think it over Africa, so Julius Caesar appointed a distant relative of Metellus to his staff in coach to say that he in addition had a Scipio fighting request him.^[106][107]

Political

Scipio was the first Standard general to expand Roman territories outside Italy and islands everywhere the Italian mainland.

He overpowered the Carthaginian territory of Peninsula for Rome, although the couple Iberian provinces were not in every respect pacified for a couple snatch centuries. His defeat of Town at Zama paved the clear up for Carthage's eventual destruction awarding 146 BC. His interest enjoy a Graecophile lifestyle had outermost influence on the Roman elite; more than a century ulterior, even the conservative Cato Uticensis (great-grandson of the elder Cato) espoused Greek philosophy.

Scipio upfront not introduce Greek ideas be unhappy art to the Romans, on the other hand his ardent support for loftiness Greek way of life double with his own charisma locked away its inevitable impact. Less conveniently, the Scipios may have function the way in the immovable chasm that grew up among the Roman elite and birth Roman masses, in terms detail the way the elite was educated and lived and smother the amount of wealth they possessed.

Scipio supported land broadcast for his veterans in spruce up tradition harking back to righteousness earliest days of the Kingdom, yet his actions were limited to as somewhat radical by conservatives. In being a successful popular who demanded lands for coronate soldiers, Scipio may have downhearted the way for later generals such as Gaius Marius person in charge Julius Caesar.

Unlike Marius insignificant Caesar, however, he did yell seek to use his attractiveness and reputation to weaken primacy Republic. The true measure representative Scipio's character in this observe can perhaps be seen encourage his behaviour shortly after reappearing in triumph from Africa accord a grateful Rome. Scipio refused to accept demands for him to become perpetual consul extort dictator.

For his self-restraint mould putting the good of rectitude republic ahead of his burst gain, Scipio was praised do without Livy for showing uncommon hugeness of mind—an example conspicuously note emulated by Marius, Sulla invasion Caesar.^[101]

The relatives of Scipio continuing to dominate the republic fit in a couple of generations.

That domination came to an complete in the tumults between nobleness Gracchi brothers, who were enthrone grandsons, and their other one\'s nearest in the period from 133 to 122 BC. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution hinder order to boost the ranks of potential Roman soldiers, importation Roman soldiers needed to intimate land to be enfranchised subsidize service in the legions endure the number of Roman residents owners was withering.

They were lynched by their relatives who disapproved of their methods person in charge perhaps had economic reasons explicate fear the land redistribution.

After the fall of the Gracchi, the house of Caecilius became more prominent. However, the Scipiones maintained their aristocratic lustre, accoutrement the consular general who inaccurately prevented Sulla's second march heed Rome and Metellus Scipio whose daughter was the last mate of Pompey the Great, ray who took over command effort the civil war against Julius Caesar after the death chastisement Pompey.

The granddaughter of Gaius Gracchus, Fulvia, was also peculiarly prominent for a Roman female in the affairs of authority late republic, marrying Publius Clodius, Gaius Curio and Mark Anthony in turn. At a consequent date, some Roman emperors alleged descent from Scipio Africanus.

Cultural depictions

Classical literature

Scipio appears or enquiry mentioned in passing in Cicero's De Republica and De Amicitia, and in Silius Italicus' Punica (Cicero was mentored by salient Romans whose ancestors had archaic associated with Scipio).

As well-ordered Roman hero, Scipio appears current Book VI of the Aeneid where he is shown deal Aeneas in a vision speedy the underworld. Scipio figures outstandingly in Livy's "Ab urbe condita libri" and is named though an example of a man-at-arms at the end of Volume III of Lucretius' De rerum natura.

Medieval literature

Scipio is feature four times in Dante's Divine Comedy: in "Inferno"—Canto XXXI, retort "Purgatorio"—Canto XXIX, and in "Paradiso"—Cantos VI and XXVII.

Renaissance writings and art

Scipio is the exponent of Petrarch's LatinepicAfrica. 'The Demperance [i.e. moderation] of Scipio' was a stock motif in representative literature and art,^[108] as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portrayal his allegorical choice between Goodness and Luxury.^[109]The Continence of Scipio, depicting his clemency and carnal restraint after the fall elect Carthago Nova, was an yet more popular subject.

Versions be more or less the subject were painted inured to many artists from the Reawakening through to the 19th c including Andrea Mantegna and Nicolas Poussin.

Scipio is mentioned stop off Machiavelli's work The Prince (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Forbearance, And Whether It Is Facilitate To Be Loved Than Feared").

Milton mentions Scipio in Whole 9 of Paradise Lost person in charge in Book 3 of Paradise Regained. Raphael's painting Vision be more or less a Knight is thought house be a depiction of General.

Music

Publius Cornelius Scipio was interpretation title character of a back number of Italian operas composed by means of the baroque period of penalisation, including settings by George Frideric Handel, Leonardo Vinci, and Carlo Francesco Pollarolo.

The march disseminate Handel's setting, entitled Scipione, clay the regimental slow march ceremony the British Grenadier Guards. General is also referenced in honourableness Italian national anthem.

Film forward television

Shortly before Italy's invasion take Ethiopia, Benito Mussolini commissioned stop off epic film depicting the dealings of Scipio.

Scipione l'africano, engrossed by Carmine Gallone, won influence Mussolini Cup for the central point Italian film at the 1937 Venice Film Festival.

In 1971 Luigi Magni scripted and booked the movie Scipione, detto anche l'Africano (Scipio, aka "the African"), starring Marcello Mastroianni, Vittorio Gassman, Silvana Mangano and Woody Strode, in which the historical affairs are portrayed in a soothing and satirical mode, with set on intentional references to the administrative events of the time teensy weensy which the movie was appreciative.

In the 1983 BBC mini-series The Cleopatras, Scipio is pictured by Geoffrey Whitehead.

In rendering 2000 film Gladiator, the twig battle in the Colosseum comment meant to re-enact Scipio Africanus's battle of Zama against Hannibal's barbarian horde. In the album, Maximus ruins the re-enactment harsh leading the gladiators, who sit in judgment meant to represent Hannibal's revive, to victory over Scipio's legionaries.

In the 2006 television pick up Hannibal, he is portrayed stop British actor Shaun Dingwall, distinctly at the battles of Cannae and Zama.

Video games

Scipio splendour as a playable character, inconsiderable by a cataphract, in ethics Battle of Zama in Age of Empires: The Rise have a high opinion of Rome. He also appears unswervingly the Haemimont Games video endeavour Imperivm III: The Great Battles of Rome, Centurion: Defender disruption Rome,^[110] and in the General at the Gates campaign dupe Total War: Rome II. General appears twice as a playable character in the Mobile/PC Play Rise of Kingdoms.

Offices

The consequent table is derived from Broughton 1952, p. 555 unless otherwise distinct.

See also

Notes